Trials of conventional criminals and terrorists Essay

Trials of conventional criminals and terrorists - Essay Example ition (in all of its senses, military or paramilitary, solutions, specialist courts or tribunals.† (Renwick & Treverton, p.1) Conventional criminals mostly commit crimes in their own country and hence the trials of such criminals are easy for the court. On the other hand in most of the cases terrorist commit crime in another country and hence their trial often poses lot of headaches to the court. Four essentials of a conventional criminal trial system are: strong and independent prosecutors; efficient and properly paid defence lawyers; ready access by defence lawyers to their clients in custody; and a modern communications system. (Review of the Criminal Courts of England and Wales) Conventional trial of a criminal often conducted in a criminal or magistrate court with the help of a judge, prosecutors, criminal advocates, witnesses etc. The judge will hear the claims of both the prosecution advocate and the criminal advocate before reaching the conclusion and declaring whether the accused committed any crime or not. In order to convince the judge the advocates (prosecution and criminal) usually presents evidences and witnesses along with the first information report (FIR) by the police who investigated the crime. The advocates will cross exam the evidences and the witnesses in order to prove their arguments. Finally the judge will reach a conclusion after hearing and evaluat ing all the arguments and evidences and will declare his verdict. Trial of a terrorist usually involves lot of complicated procedures. Quiet often special courts have been put up in order to conduct a proper and fair trial for the crime conducted by the terrorists. â€Å"In deciding whether to charge suspected terrorists, and in conducting their trials, prosecutors have difficult choices to make while maintaining proper standards of conduct. The first question, however, is how and in what context terrorists should be prosecuted.† (Renwick & Treverton, p.10) â€Å"Civilian courts do not provide

International perspective on childhood and childrens health Essay - 1

International perspective on childhood and childrens health - Essay Example This concept in education system is involved with the child’s rights to education and good living standards (Tony & Mel 1998). These rights encompass their social life, civil liberty and education. It also aims at taking off the notion or establishment of special schools that cater for students with specials needs or disabilities. Therefore, inclusion is a proponent policy that ensures that students with special needs spend a great deal of their time with the rest of the students in the school or education setting. However, this practice varies from place to place as the extent of the special needs at times dictate the extent to which the policy is adopted. Inclusion is taken to be different for mainstreaming and integration (Norwich 2008). These latter concepts concentrate more on the disability aspect of the student’s needs and the way the student should be ready to be adopted in the mainstream leaning facilities. In inclusion the schools have the obligation to incorp orate these students as well as take into consideration their rights to education, social wellbeing and civil liberty. In these schools the curriculum is a general one i.e. not specific to special needs students or the others but rather the content is summative and they learn it together (Margret & Kas 2000). In this system the students achieve equal benefits from education irrespective of the nature of their problems. Education institutions are also obligated to have their facilities in accommodating condition in that all students regardless of their challenges, they are able to derive satisfaction from them. The schools as well as the education policy formulators are required to come up with a curriculum that is all inclusive in the sense that the content in not at all discriminative and the students can learn together. The curriculum developed should put in consideration that students are from different cultural

Linguistics and Language Essay Example for Free

Linguistics and Language Essay While bilingualism has always been an object of interest and thorough research for scientists of various fields, mixing languages had been, until the last few decades, cast aside as its defective by-product. However, recent linguistic studies show that intermingling languages should not be considered an ill-conceived overlapping tendency that implies carelessness and a improper use of language, but a linguistic phenomenon with its own intricate rules and purposes. The addition of objectivity towards this subject has enabled linguists to describe in length the downsides and benefits of intermingling languages. None of the pros and cons can be treated with absolute certainty as language mixing itself is often subject to different interpretations. The term ‘intermingling languages’ is sometimes replaced with ‘code switching’ or ‘code mixing’, and the latter two treated as synonyms, although their meaning differs in multiple aspects. Code switching implies that the alternation between languages takes place after longer periods of time. Since code-switch mostly occurs at a clause or sentence boundary, it is referred to as intersential switching. According to the Sridhar brothers (1980) code mixing comprises of changing languages after shorter utterances within a single sentence, and can therefore be considered intrasential. Unlike code switching, it is not accompanied by a shift in speech situation. Code mixing also differs from borrowing, which is a less comprehensive form of using multiple languages in a short period of time. Code mixing, unlike borrowing, is not necessarily caused by a lexical gap in the host language. Neither are the mixed elements limited to a collection of terms accepted by the speech community. The mixed sequences are longer than single words (as is immanent to borrowing), but they are not always assimilated into the base language according to usual grammatical rules. The greatest difference of the two linguistic devices is probably the fact that code mixing is inevitably the result of bilingualism, however, borrowing can also occur in monolingual speech. (Sridhar Sridhar 1980) Despite the availabilty of aforementioned precise definitions numerous studies use code/language switching, mixing and intermingling synonymously without notable deficiency in the results, since these definitions tend to not hold a high level of importance when it comesto analysing the reasons, benefits and downsides of mixing languages. Contrary to popular belief, code mixing is not necessarily a sign of improperly acquired languages or inability to switch from bilingual to monolingual mode. Instead, the contradicticting mixing occurs when the usage of a single language no longer efficiently conveys meaning that is appropriate to a certain situation. According to Crystal (1987 cited in Rezaei Gheitanchian 2008) the benefits of code-switch become apparent when solving communication problems in three types of situations. The most obvious reason for a switch in languages being the difficulty in expressing oneself due to a deficiency in the base language. This shortage of a lexical item may come about because the expressed concept has no equivalent in the culture of the other language, or simply because of a momentary inability to remember said term in the host language. This type of code switching is especially prone to happen when the speaker is upset, tired or distracted in some manner. Work related mixing also falls into the ‘lexical gap’ category. For example, code switching becomes a useful tool when individuals lack the appropriate jargon while speaking about a particular topic. One may mix languages when talking about work because the technical terms associated with work are only known in one language. The second important cause in switching is the wish to ensure social belonging. An individual my want to express solidarity with a particular social group. In this case rapport is established between the speaker and the listener if the latter responds with a similar switch. Code mixing may also be used to exclude people from a conversation: for example, when travelling companions switch to their native language when mentioning things they do not wish to convey to the surrounding people; or when bilingual parents mix languages to keep their monolingual children from understanding private conversations. Thirdly, the reason for switching may be result of the wishing to convey one’s attitude towards the listener. Whereas monolinguals can express attitudes by means of variation in the level of formality in their speech, bilinguals have an extra device in this situation – code switching. When two bilinguals are accustomed to communicating in a fixed language, switching to the other is thought to create a special effect. This idea suggests that code switching can be used as a socio-linguistic tool, that aids bilinguals to emphasise a particular point in a sentence. While these benefits havebeen pointed out only during the last few decades of language studies, the downsides of code switching have always been an emphasised parallel to bilingualism research. The most common allegations have been the inability to fully comprehend either language; delays in thinking, speaking and understanding; language pollution and deterioration. The notion that intermingling languages is a results of insufficient knowledge of either of the languages, their grammatical structures and syntax, can be dismissed with the aid of the Equivalence Constraint by Poplack: â€Å"Codeswitches will tend to occur at points in discourse where juxtaposition of L1, and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either language, i. e. , at points around which the surface structures of the two languages map onto each other. † (1979 cited in Sridhar Sridhar 1980). This means that when the two languages have very different syntactical rules, the mixing is done in a way that switches occur in those parts of the sentence that allow the presence of a foreign word without causing grammatical discrepancies. However, when this is not possible the following principle of linguistics minimises the incongruity of the situation: â€Å"Dual Structure Principle: the internal structure of the guest constituent need not conform to the constituent structure rules of the host language, so long as its placement in the host sentence obeys the rules of the host language. † (Sridhar Sridhar 1980) Another problem associated with intermingling is the claimed time delay that occurs in switching. However, Gollan and Ferreira (2009) suggest that bilinguals switch languages only when non-dominant language responses are easily accesible and the switching does not occur with the price of accuracy, or if the switches improve accuracy. Furthermore, if the switches are not forced, bilinguals can actually make up for some of the costs linked with language mixing, including the small costs in time. The uncertainties that bilinguals experience when expressing emotions can also be considered a problematic aspect of language mixing. The common belief that emotions conveyd in the mother tongue have the most strength and sincereness, implies that code switching somehow lessens the truthfulness of one’s emotions. In contrast, Grosjean (2008) points out that the notion of bilinguals always expressing their emotions in their first language is a myth. The opposite can be true when a childhood in one language lacked affection or had an abundance of distressing events – in  that case, the second language may be used more often as it has stronger reaffirming emotional tones. Despite the emergence of the previous pattern, there are instances where a person might benefit more from using an emotionally less-dominating language. For example, code switching is sometimes strategically used in psychological counseling. This can be accounted to the usefulness of speaking in a second language when trying to distance oneself from emotional events. Language switching becomes a defence mechanism because of usaging a language that is not associated with such a broad range of emotions (often L2). (Altarriba Santiago Riviera 1994 as cited in Altarriba, Heredia 2001). Language mixing is an important aspect of bilingualism, and a natural occurence the conversations of bilinguals. Some linguists see it as a polluting factor which indicates the lack of language proficiency. This notion is supported by findings alike the apparent delays that switching has shown to occasionally cause in speech formation and comprehension. The claim of language mixing resulting in improper use of syntax has been counteracted with proving the well-formed and grammatically correct unwritten rules of code switching. Therefore, most of the downsides of code mixing have either not found enough proof or are minimised by counteractive processes. Analysing the reasons for language mixing has enabled us to point out its benefits. Intermingling may be induced by a simple lack of a lexical term, the need to build rapport with a fellow bilingual, a wish to restrict the conversation from surrounding monolinguals or the necessity to convey a different tone or opinion towards what is being expressed. When the problemic conditions that triggered code switching are solved this linguistic devices proves its usefulness. Keeping these notions in mind, it is easy to agree with practitioners, who despite some downsides, see language mixing as an inevitable linguistic occurance that enhances communication rather than decreasing its quality. Intermingling strengthens the content and the essence of the message, thus becoming an important social funtion of communicating. References Altarriba, J. and Santiago-Rivera, A. L. 1994. Current perspectives on using linguistic and cultural factors in counseling the Hispanic client. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 25, 388–397. Altarriba, Jeanette and Heredia, Roberto R. 2001. Bilingual Language Mixing: Why Do Bilinguals Code-Switch? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10: 15, 164-168. Crystal, D. 1987. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Gollan, Tamara H. and Ferreira, Victor S. 2008. Should I stay or should I switch? A cost-benefit analysis of voluntary language switshing in young and aging bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35: 3, 640-665. Grosjean, Francois. 2008. Studying Bilinguals. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Poplack, S. 1979. Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en Espanol: Toward a typology of codeswitching. Linguistics, 18: 7-8, 581-618. Rezaei, Seyyed Hassan Seyyed and Gheitanchian, Mehrnaz. 2008. E-proceedings of the International Online Language Conference (IOLC), 61-67. Sridhar, S. N. and Sridhar, Kamal K. 1980. The Syntax and Psycholynguistics of Bilingual Code Mixing. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 34: 4, 407-416. | | |

Favorite Norse Myths :: essays research papers

Favorite Norse Myths Published by: Scholastic Inc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2.) The Types of stories found in this book are based on Norse Mythology. They contain information on the creation of the Earth, (Midgard), and some of the trials that the gods and goddesses had gone through.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3.) One of the myths that I enjoyed was the first one on creation, entitled: Creation: The Nine Words. This story tells us how in the beginning there was nothing other than fire, ice, and mist. The land with all the ice was called Niflheim, and the land of fire was Muspell. As time went on, Muspell melted Niflheim, and from that came two giant creatures. One of them was named Ymir, and he was an evil frost-giant, and the other was a cow named Audumla. Ymir drank Audumla milk to get stronger, and one night, while sleeping, a troll with six heads grew from his feet, and a male and female frost-giant came from his armpit. Audumla also brought something to life, as he licked the salt blocks for food, he recovered another giant. This giant was a good giant, and his name was Buri. His sons and grandsons became gods, because they were very honorable. The greatest of Buri’s grandsons was Odin. Odin was the greatest of all the gods, and he was the god of war and death. Odin and his wife Frigg, goddess of knowledge, and also knew what happened in the worlds, had many children. Odin was a lso the one who led his brothers to overthrow Ymir, and they eventually killed him. After killing him, different parts of his body became different parts of nature. His flesh became the world, his blood became the seas, his bones became the mountains, and his hair and teeth became the trees and stones. Now his blood, that made the seas, drowned all but two of the frost-giants, and they repopulated the frost-giants, witches, warlocks, enchanters, and ogres, and taught them to hate Odin. They lived in Jotunheim. The worms in the Earth, Ymirs flesh, were turned onto dwarves, and the dark elves. The dwarves lived in Nidavellir, and the dark elves lived in Svartalfheim. There were also some nice creatures, and they were the elves, who lived in Alfheim. Odin took Ymirs skull and made it the sky, and places four dwarves in each corner of the sky. Nordri, Sudri, Austri, and Vestri; North, South, East, and West.

Technology and Nature in Timothy Findley’s The Wars

â€Å"The Wars can be interpreted as exploring the modern conflict between nature and technology. † The Conflict of Nature and Technology The wars is a story about Roberts life primary in the Great War, or WWI, throughout the story there are many elements of nature and technology that are introduced to the story, often in which, the two collide. Timothy Findley uses the Elements of Nature (Air, Water, Earth and Fire) and shows them in two different perspectives, sometimes harmful, sometimes helpful.The reason however that they have become harmful, is due to the perversion of nature that happens within a war. Nature is corrupted by the technology around it created by man to kill one another, it can be damaged (e. g. when chlorine gas seeps into the earth) or it can be used to cause damage (The flamethrowers). All in all, the whole war was a massive struggle between technology and nature; however one individual throughout the story is the link between Nature and Technology.Rober t Ross uses technology to kill others throughout the war, an unnatural thing, but he also cares deeply for those things that are of nature. He is the bridge between the natural and technological world. The war on nature via technology is one of the most common themes in The Wars. It is very prominent when they bring the horses over on the S. S. Massanabie, and what condition the live in while on that boat while they are transported. â€Å"Each horse was lifted in a harness by a gigantic crane and lowered into the hold like cargo. 1 This is an example where cruelties against things that are natural are portrayed by the fact that the animals are treated no better than inanimate objects. The soldiers saw the horses as nothing more than another piece of technology that they would use in the war. Robert Ross has to take over from Harris while he is on the boat, and is charged in taking care of the animals. He then finds himself in the situation of having to kill the horse because it bro ke its leg. Robert doesn’t want to do it but he decides that he has to do it to prove himself.Unfortunately Robert doesn’t kill it with the first shot and is emotionally disturbed. â€Å"Robert forced his eyes to open: aimed-and fired again. This time the horse was hit on the withers. Robert sank to his knees. He could hear himself breathing. He held the gun in both hands. He pressed it hard behind the horse’s ear and swore at the horse: God damn it, damn it, damn it-stop. His knees were wet and he drew himself into a ball and pushed with all his strength. He began to squeeze the trigger and he squeezed it gain and again and again-so many times that when the Sergeant-Major pulled him away the gun went right on clicking in his hands. †(60-61) Robert has to use technology on something he cares a lot about, animals, something natural, and it bothers him greatly. Having this is another perversion of nature, and demonstrates and re-emphasizes how the horses ar e seen as little more than another part of the war machine. Chlorine gas is a development in technology that the German’s have made towards the war effort and it is one of the most detrimental things to nature in the whole war.It is a prime example of how nature things can be corrupted my things that are man-made, because not only does the chlorine gas kill people it also â€Å"kills† the surrounding natural things. All of the surrounding land and terrain has the chlorine gas seep into it, and naturally destroys it, making the land barren and devoid of life, and the air toxic. Robert notices the green fog in the air when he and his bugler are riding. â€Å"The air was thick with green fog. There was a smell Robert could not decipher. ‘What’s that smell? ’ he said to Poole. prob’ly chlorine,’ Poole replied†¦. ‘You mean you think there’s a gas attack going on up front? ’ Robert had not yet had this experience. P oole had had it twice. ‘No sir. But the groun’ is full of it here. There’s some that says a handful of this clay could knock a person out. ’† The earth and the air have been corrupted with the chlorine gas, so much so that the area will not be viable for living or growing anything for quite some time. This is yet another example of the atrocities of war technology on nature, one that will harm the area for a long time to come.When Rodwell goes down the lines, it is shown to its truest extent how corrupted nature has been by the mechanized chaos that is war. For now it is human nature that has been corrupted, so badly they the have turned into savages. These were men who had spent the entire time while the flamethrowers burned around them, and this new technology had damaged their primal instincts. Rodwell arrive to a scene of horror, were the men were burning rats and mice alive in their cooking pots, not for food, but for pure entertainment.He tried to stop them, but he could not and they would not listen. They then did something that he could not deal with â€Å"Seeing that he took an interest, they forced him to watch a killing of a cat. Half an hour later, Rodwell wandered into No Man’s Land and put a bullet through his ears† (135) The corruption of the human mind has gone to an extent, that once normal human-beings had reverted to taking out the pain that they felt from the Germans and inflicting it on helpless creatures.Robert Ross can relate to Rodwell’s pain, because like Rodwell he also was deeply compassionate for animals. Over the course of the book technology takes its toll on nature, be it natural instincts of humans, or natural things being destroyed. Technology is one of the most detrimental things to nature there can be, and it is up to mankind whether or not it is controlled within reasonable limits, or unleashed, to an extent in which it could destroy everything. One of the largest underly ing themes in the whole book is the war within the war, or technology against nature.

Ethical Decisions - 1017 Words

Ethical Decisions July 8, 2012 Ethical Decisions Every individual is faces with ethical decisions every day in both their personal and professional lives. To avoid making unethical decisions, one must know what leads to poor decision making. Once a person knows what leads to the poor decision, they must find ways to resist making an unethical act. A person cannot make the right choice if they do not know how to avoid it. A leader must also know how to inspire ethical decisions within their staff. This paper covers ways to avoid making poor decisions and ways to making ethical ones. Poor Decision Characteristics While there are many ways one can be ethical, Mallor, Barnes, Bowers, Langvardt suggest there are three†¦show more content†¦The last way to resist making an unethical act is to find a better solution in which everyone wins. This goes hand in hand with one buying some time before acting upon an unethical act. Analyzing the situation, and getting all the facts may lead to a decision in which one makes an ethical decision while meeting the requirements of the direction one has been given. Leading Ethically When leading other individuals, it is imperative that one be ethical themselves, in order to lead ethically. A person, who is unethical, is going to inspire unethical behaviors in others. When members of an organization see that nothing happens to their leaders, others will fall into the same unethical behavior and rationalize that what they are doing is ok as well (Mallor et al., 1966/2010, p. 119). Leaders must set the example of ethical behavior for others. Leaders must also communicate ethical values of the organization to the staff. How can an individual know what they are doing is unethical in the eyes of the organization, if they do not know what is expected of them? The leader must continually communicate to the staff and remind them of what is ethical behavior. 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Fort Mims Massacre in the Creek War

The Fort Mims Massacre took place on August 30, 1813, during the Creek War (1813-1814). Armies Commander United States Major Daniel BeasleyCaptain Dixon Bailey265 men Creeks Peter McQueenWilliam Weatherford750-1,000 men Background With the United States and Britain engaged in the War of 1812, the Upper Creek elected to join with the British in 1813 and began attacks on American settlements in the southeast. This decision was based on the actions of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh who had visited the area in 1811 calling for a Native American confederacy, intrigues from the Spanish in Florida, as well as resentment about encroaching American settlers. Known as the Red Sticks, mostly likely due to their red-painted war clubs, the Upper Creeks were led by notable chiefs such as Peter McQueen and William Weatherford (Red Eagle). Defeat at Burnt Corn In July 1813, McQueen led a band of Red Sticks to Pensacola, FL where they obtained arms from the Spanish. Learning of this, Colonel James Caller and Captain Dixon Bailey departed Fort Mims, AL with the goal of intercepting McQueens force. On July 27, Caller successfully ambushed the Creek warriors at the Battle of Burnt Corn. As the Red Sticks fled into the swamps around Burnt Corn Creek, the Americans paused to loot the enemys camp. Seeing this, McQueen rallied his warriors and counterattacked. Overwhelmed, Callers men were forced to retreat. The American Defenses Angered by the attack at Burnt Corn Creek, McQueen began planning an operation against Fort Mims. Constructed on high ground near Lake Tensaw, Fort Mims was situated on the east bank of the Alabama River north of Mobile. Consisting of a stockade, blockhouse, and sixteen other buildings, Fort Mims provided protection for over 500 people including a militia force numbering approximately 265 men. Commanded by Major Daniel Beasley, a lawyer by trade, many of the forts inhabitants, including Dixon Bailey, were mixed-race and part Creek. Warnings Ignored Though encouraged to improve Fort Mims defenses by Brigadier General Ferdinand L. Claiborne, Beasley was slow to act. Advancing west, McQueen was joined by the noted chief William Weatherford (Red Eagle). Possessing around 750-1,000 warriors, they moved towards the American outpost and reached a point six miles away on August 29. Taking cover in tall grass, the Creek force was spotted by two slaves who were tending cattle. Racing back to the fort, they informed Beasley of the enemys approach. Though Beasley dispatched mounted scouts, they failed to find any trace of the Red Sticks. Angered, Beasley ordered the slaves punished for providing false information. Moving closer through the afternoon, the Creek force was nearly in place by nightfall. After dark, Weatherford and two warriors approached the forts walls and scouted the interior by looking through the loopholes in the stockade. Finding that the guard was lax, they also noticed that the main gate was open as it was blocked from completely closing by a bank of sand. Returning to the main Red Stick force, Weatherford planned the attack for the next day. Blood in the Stockade The next morning, Beasley was again alerted to the approach of a Creek force by local scout James Cornells. Disregarding this report, he attempted to have Cornells arrested, but the scout rapidly departed the fort. Around noon, the forts drummer summoned the garrison for the midday meal. This was used as the attack signal by the Creek. Surging forward, they rapidly advanced on the fort with many of the warriors taking control of the loopholes in the stockade and opening fire. This provided cover for others who successfully breached the open gate. The first Creeks to enter the fort were four warriors who had been blessed to become invincible to bullets. Though they were struck down, they briefly delayed the garrison while their comrades poured into the fort. Though some later claimed he had been drinking, Beasley attempted to rally a defense at the gate and was struck down early in the fighting. Taking command, Bailey and the forts garrison occupied its inner defenses and buildings. Mounting a stubborn defense, they slowed the Red Stick onslaught. Unable to force the Red Sticks out of the fort, Bailey found his men gradually being pushed back. As the militia fought for control of the fort, many of the settlers were struck down by the Red Sticks including women and children. Using flaming arrows, the Red Sticks were able to force the defenders from forts buildings. Sometime after 3:00 PM, Bailey and his remaining men were driven from two buildings along the forts north wall and killed. Elsewhere, some of the garrison was able to break through the stockade and escape. With the collapse of organized resistance, the Red Sticks began a wholesale massacre of the surviving settlers and militia. Aftermath Some reports indicate that Weatherford attempted to halt the killing but was unable to bring the warriors under control. The Red Sticks blood lust may have been partially fueled by a false rumor which stated that the British would pay five dollars for each white scalp delivered to Pensacola. When the killing ended, as many as 517 settlers and soldiers had been struck down. Red Stick losses are not known with any precision and estimates vary from as low as 50 killed to as high as 400. While the whites at Fort Mims were largely killed, the Red Sticks spared the forts slaves and took them as their own. The Fort Mims Massacre stunned the American public and Claiborne was criticized for his handling of the frontier defenses. Beginning that fall, an organized campaign to defeat the Red Sticks commenced using a mix of US regulars and militia. These efforts culminated in March 1814 when Major General Andrew Jackson decisively defeated the Red Sticks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. In the wake of the defeat, Weatherford approached Jackson seeking peace. After brief negotiations, the two concluded the Treaty of Fort Jackson which ended the war in August 1814. Selected Sources Fort Mims MassacreFort Mims Restoration Association